Venlafaxine-induced adrenergic signaling stimulates Leydig cells steroidogenesis via Nur77 overexpression: A possible role of EGF.

Venlafaxine, a norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake inhibitor, impairs rat sperm parameters, spermatogenesis and causes high intratesticular estrogen and testosterone levels, indicating that Leydig cells (LCs) may be a venlafaxine target. We evaluated the effect of venlafaxine treatment on rat LCs, focusing on adrenergic signaling, EGF immunoexpression and steroidogenesis. Germ cells mitotic/meiotic activity and UCHL1 levels were also evaluated in the seminiferous epithelium. Eighteen adult male rats received 30 mg/kg of venlafaxine (n = 9) or distilled water (n = 9). The seminiferous tubules, epithelium and LCs nuclear areas were measured, and the immunoexpression of Ki-67, UCHL1, StAR, EGF, c-Kit and 17ß-HSD was evaluated. UCHL1, StAR and EGF protein levels and Adra1a, Nur77 and Ndrg2 expression were analyzed. Malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitrite testicular levels, and serum estrogen and testosterone levels were measured. Venlafaxine induced LCs hypertrophy and Ndrg2 upregulation in parallel to increased number of Ki-67, c-Kit- and 17ß-HSD-positive interstitial cells, indicating that this antidepressant stimulates LCs lineage proliferation and differentiation. Upregulation of Adra1a and Nur77 could explain the high levels of StAR and testosterone levels, as well as aromatization. Enhanced EGF immunoexpression in LCs suggests that this growth fact is involved in adrenergically-induced steroidogenesis, likely via upregulation of Nur77. Slight tubular atrophy and weak Ki-67 immunoexpression in germ cells, in association with high UCHL1 levels, indicate that spermatogenesis is likely impaired by this enzyme under supraphysiological estrogen levels. These data corroborate the unchanged MDA and nitrite levels. Therefore, venlafaxine stimulates LCs steroidogenesis via adrenergic signaling, and EGF may be involved in this process.

Vitamins A and D and Zinc Affect the Leshmanicidal Activity of Canine Spleen Leukocytes.

Canine leishmaniasis (CanL) is a chronic disease caused by Leishmania infantum, and the limitations of the current treatments have encouraged new alternatives, such as the use of immunomodulatory nutrients. The objective of this study was to determine the serum levels of vitamin A (retinol), vitamin D (25(OH)VD3), and zinc (Zn) in dogs with CanL and the effect of in vitro supplementation with the respective active forms ATRA, 1,25(OH)2VD3, and SZn on spleen leukocyte cultures. Serum retinol, 25(OH)VD3, and Zn were determined by HPLC, ELISA, and ICP-MS, respectively. Spleen leukocyte cultures were used for the detection of NO and ROS by flow cytometry; the IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-10 levels were determined by ELISA; and the parasite load was determined by microscopy. We detected low serum levels of retinol and Zn and high levels of 25(OH)VD3 in the CanL group. The in vitro supplementation of CanL spleen leukocytes with ATRA, 1,25(OH)2VD3, and SZn, in addition to a soluble leishmania antigen (SLA) treatment, increased the NO and ROS levels, while the treatments with only ATRA and SZn increased the TNF-a levels. Increased IL-10 and IFN-g levels were observed with the addition of SLA to the medium, although the addition of the three nutrients led to a reduction of the IL-10 levels, and the addition of 1,25(OH)2VD3 and SZn led to a reduction of IFN-g. A supplementation with 1,25(OH)2VD3 and SZn reduced the parasite load but only in the absence of SLA. We suggest that the nutrients we tested are involved in the leishmanicidal mechanism, showing a potential for investigation in future studies.

Variants at the ASIP locus contribute to coat color darkening in Nellore cattle.

BACKGROUND: Nellore cattle (Bos indicus) are well-known for their adaptation to warm and humid environments. Hair length and coat color may impact heat tolerance. The Nellore breed has been strongly selected for white coat, but bulls generally exhibit darker hair ranging from light grey to black on the head, neck, hump, and knees. Given the potential contribution of coat color variation to the adaptation of cattle populations to tropical and sub-tropical environments, our aim was to map positional and functional candidate genetic variants associated with darkness of hair coat (DHC) in Nellore bulls. RESULTS: We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for DHC using data from 432 Nellore bulls that were genotyped for more than 777 k single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. A single major association signal was detected in the vicinity of the agouti signaling protein gene (ASIP). The analysis of whole-genome sequence (WGS) data from 21 bulls revealed functional variants that are associated with DHC, including a structural rearrangement involving ASIP (ASIP-SV1). We further characterized this structural variant using Oxford Nanopore sequencing data from 13 Australian Brahman heifers, which share ancestry with Nellore cattle; we found that this variant originates from a 1155-bp deletion followed by an insertion of a transposable element of more than 150 bp that may impact the recruitment of ASIP non-coding exons. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that the variant ASIP sequence causes darker coat pigmentation on specific parts of the body, most likely through a decreased expression of ASIP and consequently an increased production of eumelanin.

Venlafaxine-induced damage to seminiferous epithelium, spermiation, and sperm parameters in rats: A correlation with high estrogen levels.

BACKGROUND: Venlafaxine (selective serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor) use has increased worldwide. However, the impact of venlafaxine on testes and sperm parameters has not been investigated. OBJECTIVES: We evaluated venlafaxine impact on testicular and sperm parameters and verified whether the changes are reversible. METHODS: Animals from venlafaxine-35 days and venlafaxine-65 days groups received 30 mg/kg of venlafaxine for 35 days. Control-35 days and control-65 days received distilled water. In control-65 days and venlafaxine-65 days, the treatment was interrupted for 30 days. Sperm concentration, morphology, motility, and mitochondrial activity were analyzed. Number of step 19 spermatids (NLS), frequency of tubules with spermiation failure, Sertoli cells number, and TUNEL-positive germ cells were quantified. Testicular aromatase, connexin 43 (Cx43) immunoexpression, Cx43 protein levels, and Cx43 expression were evaluated. Either intratesticular testosterone or estrogen levels were measured. RESULTS: Venlafaxine impaired sperm morphology, reduced sperm concentration, mitochondrial activity, and sperm motility. The frequency of tubules with spermiation failure and NLS increased in parallel to increased Cx43 immunoexpression; mRNA and protein levels; and aromatase, testosterone, and estrogen levels. An increase in germ cell death and decreased Sertoli cells number were observed. In venlafaxine-65 days, except for sperm motility, mitochondrial activity, Sertoli cells number, and germ cell death, all other parameters were partially or totally recovered. CONCLUSION: Venlafaxine increases testosterone aromatization and Cx43. This drug, via high estrogen levels, disturbs Sertoli cells, induces germ cell death, and impairs spermiation and sperm parameters. The restoration of spermiation associated with the decreased Cx43 and hormonal levels in venlafaxine-65 days reinforces that high estrogen levels are related to venlafaxine-induced changes. The presence of damaged Sertoli cells, germ cell death, and low sperm motility in venlafaxine-65 days indicates that interruption of treatment for 30 days was insufficient for testicular recovery and points to a long-term estrogen impact on the seminiferous epithelium.

Identification of bovine CpG SNPs as potential targets for epigenetic regulation via DNA methylation.

Methylation patterns established and maintained at CpG sites may be altered by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within these sites and may affect the regulation of nearby genes. Our aims were to: 1) identify and generate a database of SNPs potentially subject to epigenetic control by DNA methylation via their involvement in creating, removing or displacing CpG sites (meSNPs), and; 2) investigate the association of these meSNPs with CpG islands (CGIs), and with methylation profiles of DNA extracted from tissues from cattle with divergent feed efficiencies detected using MIRA-Seq. Using the variant annotation for 56,969,697 SNPs identified in Run5 of the 1000 Bull Genomes Project and the UMD3.1.1 bovine reference genome sequence assembly, we identified and classified 12,836,763 meSNPs according to the nature of variation created at CpGs. The majority of the meSNPs were located in intergenic regions (68%) or introns (26.3%). We found an enrichment (p<0.01) of meSNPs located in CGIs relative to the genome as a whole, and also in differentially methylated sequences in tissues from animals divergent for feed efficiency. Seven meSNPs, located in differentially methylated regions, were fixed for methylation site creating (MSC) or destroying (MSD) alleles in the differentially methylated genomic sequences of animals differing in feed efficiency. These meSNPs may be mechanistically responsible for creating or deleting methylation targets responsible for the differential expression of genes underlying differences in feed efficiency. Our methyl SNP database (dbmeSNP) is useful for identifying potentially functional "epigenetic polymorphisms" underlying variation in bovine phenotypes.

microRNA profile datasets of murine macrophages infected with different strains of Leptospira spp.

MicroRNAs play an important role in the regulation of immune responses. The influence of epigenetic mechanisms, particularly RNA-mediated post-transcriptional regulation of host immune responses has been proven vital following infections by different pathogens, and bacteria can modulated host miRNAs. Global miRNA expression analysis from macrophages infected in vitro with different strains of Leptospira spp was performed using miRNA 4.1 microarray strips. Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonosis of global importance, responsible for significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite considerable advances, much is yet to be discovered about disease pathogenicity, particularly in regards to host-pathogen interactions. We present here a high-quality dataset examining the microtranscriptome of murine macrophages J774A.1 following 8h of infection with virulent, attenuated and saprophyte strains of Leptospira. Metadata files were submitted to the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) repository.

Expression of tissue-specific imprinted gene tumor Suppressing Subtransferable Candidate 4 (TSSC4) is altered in placentae produced by nuclear transfer in cattle.

Embryonic and placental development is highly orchestrated by epigenetic processes. Disruptions in normal placental development, commonly observed in pregnancies produced by nuclear transfer, are associated with abnormal gene expression and altered epigenetic regulation of imprinted and vital placental genes. The objective of this study was to evaluate expression and epigenetic regulation of the imprinted gene TSSC4 in cotyledonary and intercotyledonary tissues from day 60 pregnancies produced by embryo transfer (ET), in vitro fertilization (IVF) and nuclear transfer (NT) in cattle. TSSC4 expression was reduced by 30% in cotyledons at 60days of gestation in the NT group. The proximal promoter region of TSSC4 showed an increase in the permissive histone mark (H3K4me2) and a reduction in the inhibitory histone mark (H3K9me2) in the cotyledons produced by NT, in relation to cotyledons produced by embryo transfer. Interestingly, H3K9me2 was also significantly reduced in cotyledons produced by IVF, compared to the ET controls. DNA methylation, in CpG-rich regions located at the proximal promoter region and the coding region of TSSC4 did not differ. These results suggest that the reduction in TSSC4 expression, observed following NT, can not be explained by the histone changes investigated in the proximal promoter region of the gene, or by changes in methylation in three regions evaluated. Also, a decrease in the levels of H3K9 dimethylation in IVF samples, indicate that in vitro culturing could corroborate with the alterations seen in the NT group.

Nuclear transfer alters placental gene expression and associated histone modifications of the placental-specific imprinted gene pleckstrin homology-like domain, family A, member 2 (PHLDA2) in cattle.

Abnormal placental development is frequent in nuclear transfer (NT) pregnancies and is likely to be associated with altered epigenetic reprogramming. In the present study, fetal and placental measurements were taken on Day 60 of gestation in cows with pregnancies produced by AI, IVF and NT. Placentas were collected and subjected to histological evaluation, the expression of genes important in trophoblast differentiation and expression of the placental imprinted gene pleckstrin homology-like domain, family A, member 2 (PHLDA2), as well as chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) for histone marks within the promoter of PHLDA2. Fewer binucleated cells were observed in NT cotyledons, followed by IVF and AI cotyledons (P<0.05). Expression of heart and neural crest derivatives expressed 1 (HAND1), placental lactogen (PL), pregnancy-associated glycoprotein 9 (PAG-9) and PHLDA2 was elevated in NT cotyledons compared with AI cotyledons. Expression of PHLDA2 was higher in IVF than AI samples (P<0.05). ChIP revealed an increase in the permissive mark dimethylation of lysine 4 on histone H3 (H3K4me2), surprisingly associated with the silent allele of PHLDA2, and a decrease in the inhibitory mark H3K9me2 in NT samples. Thus, genes critical for placental development were altered in NT placentas, including an imprinted gene. Allele-specific changes in the permissive histone mark in the PHLDA2 promoter indicate misregulation of imprinting in clones. Abnormal trophoblast differentiation could have resulted in lower numbers of binucleated cells following NT. These results suggest that the altered expression of imprinted genes associated with NT are also caused by changes in histone modifications.

Supplementation of fetal bovine serum alters histone modification H3R26me2 during preimplantation development of in vitro produced bovine embryos / Suplementação com soro fetal bovino altera a modificação de histona H3R26me2 durante o período pré-implantacional em embriões bovinos produzidos in vitro

In vitro production (IVP) of bovine embryos is not only of great economic importance to the cattle industry, but is also an important model for studying embryo development. The aim of this study was to evaluate the histone modification, H3R26me2 during pre-implantation development of IVP bovine embryos cultured with or without serum supplementation and how these in vitro treatments compared to in vivo embryos at the morula stage. After in vitro maturation and fertilization, bovine embryos were cultured with either 0 or 2.5% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Development was evaluated and embryos were collected and fixed at different stages during development (2-, 4-, 8-, 16-cell, morula and blastocyst). Fixed embryos were then used for immunofluorescence utilizing an antibody for H3R26me2. Images of stained embryos were analyzed as a percentage of total DNA. Embryos cultured with 2.5% FBS developed to blastocysts at a greater rate than 0%FBS groups (34.85±5.43% vs. 23.38±2.93%; P<0.05). Levels of H3R26me2 changed for both groups over development. In the 0%FBS group, the greatest amount of H3R26me2 staining was at the 4-cell (P<0.05), 16-cell (P<0.05) and morula (P<0.05) stages. In the 2.5%FBS group, only 4-cell stage embryos were significantly higher than all other stages (P<0.01). Morula stage in vivo embryos had similar levels as the 0%FBS group, and both were significantly higher than the 2.5%FBS group. These results suggest that the histone modification H3R26me2 is regulated during development of pre-implantation bovine embryos, and that culture conditions greatly alter this regulation...

A produção in vitro (PIV) de embriões de bovinos não é apenas de grande importância econômica para a pecuária, mas é também um importante modelo para estudar o desenvolvimento embrionário. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a modificação de histona, H3R26me2 durante o desenvolvimento pré-implantacional em embriões bovinos produzidos in vitro, cultivados com ou sem suplementação de soro fetal bovino (SFB), bem como comparar essa modificação específica entre mórulas produzidas in vitro e in vivo. Após a maturação in vitro e fertilização, embriões foram cultivados com suplementação de 0 ou 2,5% SFB. O desenvolvimento embrionário foi avaliado e embriões foram coletados e fixados em diferentes fases durante o desenvolvimento (2, 4, 8 e 16 células, mórula e blastocisto). Os embriões fixados foram avaliados por imunofluorescência utilizando um anticorpo para H3R26me2. Imagens de embriões corados foram analisadas baseadas na porcentagem do DNA total. Embriões cultivados com 2,5% SFB tiveram uma taxa de desenvolvimento ao estágio de blastocisto maior que o grupo que não recebeu suplementação com SFB (34.85±5,43% vs 23.38±,93%; P<0,05). Níveis de H3R26me2 variaram para ambos os grupos ao longo do desenvolvimento. No grupo 0% SFB, a marcação para H3R26me2 foi mais intensa nos estágios de 4 células (P<0,05), 16 células (P<0,05) e mórula (P<0.05). No grupo 2.5% SFB, apenas os embriões de 4 células tiveram marcação significativamente maior que todas as outras fases (P<0,01). Mórulas produzidas in vivo apresentaram níveis de H3R26me2 semelhantes ao grupo 0% SFB, e ambos foram significativamente maiores que o grupo 2.5% SFB. Estes resultados sugerem que a modificação de histona H3R26me2 é regulada durante o desenvolvimento pré-implantacional de embriões bovinos, e que as condições de cultura alteram de maneira importante esta regulação...

Influence of bovine serum albumin and fetal bovine serum supplementation during in vitro maturation on lipid and mitochondrial behaviour in oocytes and lipid accumulation in bovine embryos.

Proper oocyte maturation is crucial for subsequent embryo development; however, oocyte mitochondrial and lipid-droplet behaviour are still poorly understood. Although excessive lipid accumulation during in vitro production (IVP) of bovine embryos has been linked with impaired cryotolerance, lipid oxidation is essential for adequate energy supply. Fetal bovine serum (FBS) and bovine serum albumin (BSA) are supplements used during IVP, containing high and low lipid content, respectively. This study aimed to understand how these supplements influence oocyte mitochondrial and lipid behaviour during in vitro maturation (IVM) in comparison to in vivo maturation, as well as their influence on development rates and embryo lipid accumulation during IVP. We demonstrate that only in vivo-matured oocytes maintained correlation between lipid content and active mitochondria. IVM media containing FBS increased total lipid content 18-fold and resulted in higher lipid accumulation in oocytes when compared with media with BSA. IVM using a lower FBS concentration combined with BSA resulted in satisfactory maturation and embryo development and also reduced lipid accumulation in blastocysts. In conclusion, IVM causes changes in mitochondrial and lipid dynamics, which may have negative effects on oocyte development rates and embryo lipid accumulation. Moreover, decreasing FBS concentrations during IVM may reduce embryo lipid accumulation without affecting production rates.

Oxygen tension affects histone remodeling of in vitro-produced embryos in a bovine model.

In vitro production of bovine embryos is a biotechnology of great economic impact. Epigenetic processes, such as histone remodeling, control gene expression and are essential for proper embryo development. Given the importance of IVP as a reproductive biotechnology, the role of epigenetic processes during embryo development, and the important correlation between culture conditions and epigenetic patterns, the present study was designed as a 2 × 2 factorial to investigate the influence of varying oxygen tensions (O2; 5% and 20%) and concentrations of fetal bovine serum (0% and 2.5%), during IVC, in the epigenetic remodeling of H3K9me2 (repressive) and H3K4me2 (permissive) in bovine embryos. Bovine oocytes were used for IVP of embryos, cleavage and blastocyst rates were evaluated, and expanded blastocysts were used for evaluation of the histone marks H3K9me2 and H3K4me2. Morulae and expanded blastocysts were also used to evaluate the expression of remodeling enzymes, specific to the aforementioned marks, by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Embryos produced in the presence of fetal bovine serum (2.5%) had a 10% higher rate of blastocyst formation. Global staining for the residues H3K9me2 and H3K4me2 was not affected significantly by the presence of serum. Notwithstanding, the main effect of oxygen tension was significant for both histone marks, with both repressive and permissive marks being higher in embryos cultured at the higher oxygen tension; however, expression of the remodeling enzymes did not differ in morulae or blastocysts in response to the varying oxygen tension. These results suggest that the use of serum during IVC of embryos increases blastocyst rate without affecting the evaluated histone marks and that oxygen tension has an important effect on the histone marks H3K9me2 and H3K4me2 in bovine blastocysts.

Efeitos da redução ou substituição do soro fetal bovino por outros compostos na maturação in vitro de oócitos bovinos / Effects of reduction or replacement of fetal calf serum by other compounds during in vitro maturation of bovine oocytes

A utilização do soro fetal bovino (SFB), embora bastante disseminada na produção in vitro (PIV) de embriões bovinos, apresenta limitações por ser um meio indefinido e por causar efeitos que prejudicam a qualidade desses embriões. Por esse motivo, nos últimos anos, grande parte das pesquisas relacionadas à PIV está voltada para a substituição do SFB por outros compostos nos meios de cultura. No presente estudo, foram utilizados como compostos protéicos a albumina sérica bovina livre de ácidos graxos (BSA-FAF) e um produto comercial denominado fluido embriônico (FE) de maneira isolada ou em diferentes combinações e concentrações, com objetivo de substituir ou diminuir a concentração do SFB durante a maturação in vitro (MIV). [...] Ademais, o G3 também apresentou diminuição na taxa de maturação nuclear quando comparado ao G4. Quanto à maturação citoplasmática, nos grupos G2, G7, G6 e G3, houve redução (p<0,05) das taxas para 43,9por cento, 43,2 por cento, 43,1 por cento e 36,5 por cento, respectivamente, quando comparadas ao meio controle (G1), que permitiu a obtenção de valores médios de 62,4 por cento. Por outro lado, nos grupos G8, G4 e G5, a taxa de maturação citoplasmática não foi afetada com a redução do SFB, onde 59,3 por cento, 51,3 por cento e 50,8 por cento dos oócitos apresentaram os GC dispostos na periferia, respectivamente. Os resultados obtidos pelo teste de contrastes ortogonais complementam os obtidos na avaliação da maturação nuclear e migração de grânulos corticais, mostrando a necessidade do SFB durante a MIV, mesmo que em baixas concentrações, e a possibilidade de diminuir a sua concentração associando-o a BSA-FAF e/ou FE. Dessa forma, conclui-se que é possível reduzir a concentração de SFB no meio de MIV para até 3,5% sem prejuízo significativo aos índices de maturação nuclear e citoplasmática.

The use of fetal calf serum (FCS), although widely employed during in vitro production (IVP) of bovine embryos, has limitations. FCS is an undefined media and may have harmful effects on the quality of embryos. For this reason, in recent years, research efforts aimed at improving IVP of bovine embryos, have focused at the replacement of FCS by alternative compounds in culture media. In this study, fatty acid free bovine serum albumin (BSA-FAF) and embryonic fluid (EF) were used separately or in combination, in different concentrations, to replace or reduce the concentration of FCS during in vitro maturation (IVM). [...] Moreover, G3 also showed inferior nuclear maturation rate when compared to G4. Regarding cytoplasmic maturation, the rates were reduced to 43.9 percent, 43.2 percent, 43.1 percent and 36.5 percent in G2, G7, G6 and G3 groups, respectively, compared to the control group (G1; 62.4 percent). On the other hand, in the groups G8, G4 and G5, maturation rates were not affected by reduction of FCS, where 59.3 percent, 51.3 percent and 50.8 percent of the oocytes displayed CG arranged peripherally, respectively. The results obtained by the orthogonal contrast test are in accordance with the ones from the evaluation of the nuclear maturation and cortical granules migration. These data show the need of FCS on the MIV, even in low concentrations, and the possibility of decrease its concentration by associating it with BSA-FAF and/or EF. Therefore, we concluded that it is possible to reduce the concentration of FCS in IVM medium to a concentration of 3.5 percent without affecting nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation rates.

Modulation of imprinted gene expression following superovulation.

Although assisted reproductive technologies increase the risk of low birth weight and genomic imprinting disorders, the precise underlying causes remain unclear. Using a mouse model, we previously showed that superovulation alters the expression of imprinted genes in the placenta at 9.5days (E9.5) of gestation. Here, we investigate whether effects of superovulation on genomic imprinting persisted at later stages of development and assess the surviving fetuses for growth and morphological abnormalities. Superovulation, followed by embryo transfer at E3.5, as compared to spontaneous ovulation (controls), resulted in embryos of normal size and weight at 14.5 and 18.5days of gestation. The normal monoallelic expression of the imprinted genes H19, Snrpn and Kcnq1ot1 was unaffected in either the placentae or the embryos from the superovulated females at E14.5 or E18.5. However, for the paternally expressed imprinted gene Igf2, superovulation generated placentae with reduced production of the mature protein at E9.5 and significantly more variable mRNA levels at E14.5. We propose that superovulation results in the ovulation of abnormal oocytes with altered expression of imprinted genes, but that the coregulated genes of the imprinted gene network result in modulated expression.

Reproductive and epigenetic outcomes associated with aging mouse oocytes.

Female aging entails a decline in fertility in mammals, manifested by reduced oocyte reserves and poor oocyte quality accompanied by chromosomal anomalies and reduced litter size. In addition to compromised genetic integrity, recent studies suggest that epigenetic mechanisms may be altered in aging oocytes, with age affecting the expression of DNA methyltransferases, which catalyze the important epigenetic modification, DNA methylation. Loss of DNA methylation patterns, most notably for imprinted genes, is lethal to mouse embryos. To investigate how maternal age affects embryonic development and underlying DNA methylation patterns, young and aged C57BL/6 females were mated with C57BL/6 or C57BL/6(CAST7) males to allow for the identification of parental alleles; resulting blastocysts and mid-gestation embryos and placentas were evaluated. Although pregnancy, ovulation and implantation rates were similar between age groups, an age-related increase in resorption sites, morphological abnormalities and delayed development was found. Interestingly, placental morphology was also perturbed by aging, with elevated numbers of trophoblast giant cells in aged pregnancies. Normal monoallelic expression of the imprinted genes H19 and Snrpn was unaltered in blastocysts from aged females. We failed to observe any age-related changes in methylation of the differentially methylated regions of imprinted genes Snrpn, Kcnq1ot1, U2af1-rs1, Peg1, Igf2r and H19. Restriction Landmark Genome Scanning showed no significant differences in genome-wide DNA methylation in embryos and placentas, regardless of maternal age. Our findings demonstrate that maternal age affects post-implantation embryo and placental development; however embryos capable of developing to mid-gestation appear to undergo normal acquisition and maintenance of DNA methylation patterning.

Superovulation alters the expression of imprinted genes in the midgestation mouse placenta.

Imprinted genes play important roles in embryonic growth and development as well as in placental function. Many imprinted genes acquire their epigenetic marks during oocyte growth, and this period may be susceptible to epigenetic disruption following hormonal stimulation. Superovulation has been shown to affect growth and development of the embryo, but an effect on imprinted genes has not been shown in postimplantation embryos. In the present study, we examined the effect of superovulation/in vivo development or superovulation/3.5dpc (days post-coitum) embryo transfer on the allelic expression of Snrpn, Kcnq1ot1 and H19 in embryos and placentas at 9.5 days of gestation. Superovulation followed by in vivo development resulted in biallelic expression of Snrpn and H19 in 9.5dpc placentas while Kcnq1ot1 was not affected; in the embryos, there was normal monoallelic expression of the three imprinted genes. We did not observe significant DNA methylation perturbations in the differentially methylated regions of Snrpn or H19. Superovulation followed by embryo transfer at 3.5dpc resulted in biallelic expression of H19 in the placenta. The expression of an important growth factor closely linked to H19, Insulin-like growth factor-II, was increased in the placenta following superovulation with or without embryo transfer. These results show that both maternally and paternally methylated imprinted genes were affected, suggesting that superovulation compromises oocyte quality and interferes with the maintenance of imprinting during preimplantation development. Our findings contribute to the evidence that mechanisms for maintaining imprinting are less robust in trophectoderm-derived tissues, and have clinical implications for the screening of patients following assisted reproduction.

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma regulates trophoblast cell differentiation in mink (Mustela vison).

Nuclear receptors of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) family are implicated in implantation and early placental formation. In carnivores, the trophoblast invades to develop intimate contact with the endothelial cells of the maternal circulation, resulting in an endothelio-chorial form of placentation. Spatio-temporal investigation demonstrated that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG) was strongly and specifically expressed in the mink trophoblast at the time of formation of the syncytiotrophoblast during early implantation, and in trophoblast of the placental labyrinth. The retinoid-X-receptor alpha (RXRA), the heterodimeric partner of PPARG in transcriptional regulation, is, with very few exceptions, co-expressed with PPARG in mink trophoblast. We used mink trophoblast cell lines together with a natural (15-deoxy-delta(12,14)-prostaglandin J(2) ) or a synthetic (troglitazone) PPARG ligand to demonstrate that PPARG is an authentic regulator of gene expression in this tissue. Ligand-activated PPARG stimulated transcription of the PPRE-luc reporter gene transfected into these cell lines. The prostaglandin-induced morphologic changes were accompanied by attenuation in cell proliferation, an increase in PPARG mRNA and protein levels, and the appearance of enlarged and multinuclear cells. Furthermore, 15-deoxy-delta(12,14)-prostaglandin J(2) stimulated the expression of invasion-related genes in trophoblast cells, namely, adipophilin and osteopontin. The results demonstrate that PPARG ligands attenuate proliferation and induce differentiation of mink trophoblast cells to the multlinuclear phenotype. The upregulation of differentiation-specific genes in the placenta under the influence of PPARG ligands provides a mechanism by which blastocyst and endometrial prostanoids regulate implantation, as well as the formation and maintenance of the placenta.

Adiponectin induces periovulatory changes in ovarian follicular cells.

Adiponectin, the most abundantly synthesized protein in adipose tissue, has plieotropic effects on liver, muscle, endothelium, placenta, and other tissues. We examined direct effects of recombinant porcine adiponectin on porcine ovarian granulosa cells in vitro. We demonstrate that adiponectin, at physiologically relevant levels (10-25 microg/ml), provokes expression of genes associated with periovulatory remodeling of the ovarian follicle over a time frame of 6-24 h. These include cyclooxygenase-2, prostaglandin E synthase, and vascular endothelial growth factor. Adiponectin modulates steroid synthetic protein gene expression, increasing steroidogenic acute regulatory protein transcript abundance and reducing cytochrome P450aromatase. Adiponectin has antidiabetic properties and sensitizes tissues to insulin. We show that it interacts with both LH and insulin in inducing expression of cyclooxygenase-2 transcripts in granulosa cells. We determined that the MAPK pathway, via phosphorylation of ERK1/2, is involved in mediation of the adiponectin signal in ovarian granulosa cells, rather than protein kinase A or the classic adiponectin transducer, AMP-activated protein kinase. Adiponectin synthesis is reduced in obesity, and our findings suggest that this reduction plays a role in obesity-related ovarian dysfunction.

Transcriptional regulation of uterine vascular endothelial growth factor during early gestation in a carnivore model, Mustela vison.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is an essential angiogenic signaling element that acts through its two tyrosine kinase receptors, inducing both proliferation of endothelial cells and vascular permeability. Given the importance of vasculogenesis and angiogenesis to early pregnancy, it is of interest to understand the mechanisms regulating vascular development at this stage. We previously demonstrated that VEGF and receptors are up-regulated during embryo implantation in an unique animal model, the mink, a species displaying obligate embryonic diapause. Herein we examined the role of prostaglandin E2 (PGE(2)) as a regulator of VEGF during early pregnancy and established the mechanisms of this regulation. We demonstrate that activated embryos secrete PGE(2) and that expression of PGE synthase protein in the uterus is dependent upon direct contact with invading trophoblast cells during implantation. Using mink uterine stromal cells transfected with mink VEGF promoter driving the luciferase reporter gene, we show that PGE(2) induces promoter transactivation and that this response can be eliminated by blockade of protein kinase A. Treatment with antagonists to PGE(2) receptors EP2 and EP4 eliminated the PGE(2)-induced response in transfected cells. Deletional studies of the promoter revealed that a region of 99 bp upstream of the transcription start site is required for PGE(2)-induced transactivation. Mutation of an AP2/Sp1 cluster, found within the 99 bp, completely eliminated the PGE(2) response. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation assays confirmed binding of the AP2 and Sp1 transcription factors to the endogenous mink VEGF promoter in uterine cells. PGE(2) stimulated acetylation of histone H3 associated with the promoter region containing the AP2/Sp1 cluster. Taken together, these results demonstrate that PGE(2) plays an important role in regulating uterine and thus placental vascular development, acting through its receptors EP2 and EP4, provoking protein kinase A activation of AP2 and Sp1 as well as acetylation of histone H3 to transactivate the VEGF promoter.

Ovarian and endocrine responses associated with the treatment of cystic ovarian follicles in dairy cows with gonadotropin releasing hormone and prostaglandin F2alpha, with or without exogenous progesterone.

The objectives of this observational study were to document ovarian and endocrine responses associated with the treatment of cystic ovarian follicles (COFs) in dairy cows, using gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) and prostaglandin F2alpha (PGF) with or without exogenous progesterone. A secondary objective was to determine pregnancy establishment following synchronization of ovulation and timed insemination in cows diagnosed with COFs. In trial I, 18 Holstein cows diagnosed with COFs received 2 injections of 100 microg GnRH, 9 d apart, with 25 mg PGF given 7 d after the 1st GnRH. A new follicle developed in all 18 cows after the 1st GnRH, and 83% of cows ovulated following the 2nd GnRH. Cows were inseminated 16 h after the 2nd GnRH. Of the 17 cows available for pregnancy diagnosis, 7 were confirmed pregnant. In trial II, 8 cows with COFs received GnRH and an intravaginal progesterone device (CIDR) concurrently, then PGF 7 d later. The CIDR was removed 2 d after PGF administration. Plasma estradiol concentrations declined following CIDR insertion. In all cows, a new follicle developed following GnRH treatment; estradiol-surge and estrus occurred spontaneously after CIDR-removal. Seven of 8 cows ovulated the new follicle. In dairy cows diagnosed with COFs, treatment with GnRH followed by PGF 7 d later, with or without exogenous progesterone, resulted in the recruitment of a healthy new follicle; synchronization of ovulation and timed insemination resulted in a 41% pregnancy rate.

Embryonic diapause and its regulation.

Embryonic diapause, a condition of temporary suspension of development of the mammalian embryo, occurs due to suppression of cell proliferation at the blastocyst stage. It is an evolutionary strategy to ensure the survival of neonates. Obligate diapause occurs in every gestation of some species, while facultative diapause ensues in others, associated with metabolic stress, usually lactation. The onset, maintenance and escape from diapause are regulated by cascades of environmental, hypophyseal, ovarian and uterine mechanisms that vary among species and between the obligate and facultative condition. In the best-known models, the rodents, the uterine environment maintains the embryo in diapause, while estrogens, in combination with growth factors, reinitiate development. Mitotic arrest in the mammalian embryo occurs at the G0 or G1 phase of the cell cycle, and may be due to expression of a specific cell cycle inhibitor. Regulation of proliferation in non- mammalian models of diapause provide clues to orthologous genes whose expression may regulate the reprise of proliferation in the mammalian context.